Jerjes I
De Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre
| Jerjes I | |
|---|---|
| Gran Rey (Shah) de Persia y Faraón de Egipto | |
 Relieve de Jerjes I (o de su padre Darío I), en Persépolis | |
| Reinado | Octubre de 485 a 465 a. C. |
| Nacimiento | 519 a. C. Persia |
| Fallecimiento | 465 a. C. Persia (apuñalado) |
| Entierro | Persia |
| Predecesor | Darío I |
| Sucesor | Artajerjes I |
| Consorte | Amestris |
| Dinastía | Aqueménida |
| Padre | Darío I el Grande (el Grande) |
| Madre | Atossa |
Jerjes I (en persa خشایارشاه) (circa 519-465 a. C.), rey aqueménida de Persia (486-465 a. C.), hijo de Darío I y de Atosa, hija de Ciro II el Grande. Su nombre Jerjes (también escrito Xerxes) es una transliteración al griego (Ξερξης, "Xerxēs") de su nombre persa tras su ascensión al trono, Jshāyār shāh, que significa "gobernador de héroes". En la Biblia se le menciona como אחשורש (Axashverosh o Ahasuerus transliterado al griego).
Contenido[ocultar] |
Las revueltas de Egipto y Babilonia [editar]
Jerjes fue designado como sucesor de Darío I por delante de todos sus hermanastros, mayores que él, y que nacieron antes de que Darío ascendiera al trono. Tras ser coronado en octubre de 485 a. C., Jerjes se enfrentó victoriosamente a una rebelión en el Egipto sometido, iniciada en 486 a. C., dejando a su hermano Aquemenes como sátrapa de esta provincia, sobre la cual ejerció un control muy represivo.
Los predecesores de Jerjes, especialmente su padre, no fueron muy afortunados en sus intentos de conciliar las antiguas civilizaciones sometidas con el gobierno persa. Esta fue probablemente la razón por la cual Jerjes decidiera abolir definitivamente el reino de Babilonia en 484 a. C. y llevarse la estatua dorada de Bel (Marduk o Merodach, cuyas manos debía agarrar el legítimo rey de Babilonia el primer día de cada año), matando a los sacerdotes que trataron de impedírselo. Por lo tanto, Jerjes no aparece usando el título de Rey de Babilonia en los textos babilónicos que datan de su reinado, pero sí el de Rey de Persia y Media, o simplemente Rey de naciones (equivalente a Rey del mundo). Este proceder desencadenó dos rebeliones, en 484 a. C. y en 479 a. C., que fueron sofocadas enérgicamente.
La Segunda Guerra Médica [editar]
Una vez sofocadas todas las revueltas, y alentado por su primo Mardonio, trató de vengar la derrota sufrida por su padre, Darío I, en la batalla de Maratón, durante la Primera Guerra Médica (490 a. C.). Darío no había podido castigar a los atenienses por su intromisión en la Revuelta jónica en Asia Menor, por lo que Jerjes planificó la operación de castigo con sumo cuidado (483 a. C.). De esta forma, mandó excavar un canal a través del istmo que comunicaba la península de Monte Athos con el continente europeo; se almacenaron provisiones en escalas a lo largo de la ruta que recorría Tracia; y se erigieron dos puentes que atravesaban el Helesponto. Jerjes concluyó una alianza con Cartago, lo cual privó a los griegos helénicos del apoyo de los griegos sicilianos de Agrigento y Siracusa, a la vez que consiguió ganar para la causa persa a varios estados griegos, como Tesalia, Macedonia, Tebas y Argos. Los persas lograron reunir para la ocasión una gran flota (la mayoría de las naves procedían de sus vasallos fenicios y chipriotas) y un poderoso ejército. En relación al número de efectivos podemos mencionar lo siguiente extraído del libro VII de Heródoto: "No puedo en verdad decir detalladamente el número de gente que cada nación presentó, no hallando hombre alguno que de él me informe. El grueso de todo el ejército en la reseña ascendió a un millón y setecientos mil hombres; el modo de contarlos fue singular: juntaron en un sitio determinado diez mil hombres apiñados entre sí lo más que fue posible y tiraron después una línea alrededor de dicho sitio, sobre la cual levantaron una pared alrededor, alta hasta el ombligo de un hombre. Salidos los primeros diez mil, fueron después metiendo otros dentro del cerco, hasta que así acabaron de contarlos a todos, y contados ya, los fueron separando y ordenando por naciones".
De esta forma, en la primavera del año 480 a. C., Jerjes abandonó Sardes al frente de su ejército, desencadenando así la Segunda Guerra Médica contra la alianza griega de Atenas y Esparta. En principio el ejército persa consiguió importantes victorias: la flota griega fue rechazada en el cabo Artemisión, y tras la victoria sobre Leónidas I de Esparta y sus 300 hombres en el desfiladero de las Termópilas, los persas devastaron Beocia y el Ática, llegando hasta Atenas.
La ciudad había sido evacuada previamente por orden de Temístocles, refugiándose sus habitantes en las islas cercanas, de manera que el ejército persa sólo tuvo que enfrentarse a la guarnición de la Acrópolis, saqueando a continuación la ciudad e incendiando y arrasando los templos de la Acrópolis, mientras las fuerzas espartanas y atenienses establecían su última línea de resistencia en el istmo de Corinto y el golfo Sarónico.
Sin embargo, Jerjes fue engañado por un astuto mensaje de Temístocles (contra la advertencia de Artemisia de Halicarnaso) para atacar a la flota griega bajo condiciones adversas, en lugar de enviar parte de sus barcos al Peloponeso y esperar simplemente la disolución del ejército griego tras un prolongado asedio. La batalla naval librada en Salamina (480 a. C.), donde la flota griega se había refugiado en el golfo entre el Ática y la isla de Salamina, fue ganada por la flota ateniense, al mando de Euribíades, pero no fue más que un pequeño revés en una campaña victoriosa para los persas hasta ese momento. Perdida la comunicación por mar con Asia Menor, Jerjes decidió retornar a Sardes; el ejército que dejó en Grecia al mando de Mardonio fue derrotado en 479 a. C. en Platea. La posterior derrota persa en Mícala, al norte de Mileto, supuso la libertad de las ciudades griegas de Asia Menor y la renuncia de Jerjes a las mismas, dejando de entrometerse en la política griega.
La batalla de Atenas, que Jerjes dirigió personalmente, es a menudo erróneamente interpretada como un enfrentamiento entre griegos y persas, cuando en verdad la intención de Jerjes era castigar a los atenienses por el pillaje y la destrucción causados por sus fuerzas en las ciudades jonias de Asia Menor, que estaban bajo el control persa. Es de destacar que para esta empresa contó con la ayuda de otras ciudades griegas, y aun de Macedonia. Jerjes tomó Atenas, y después de un breve periodo de ocupación, la abandonó, debido a que su interés no estaba en la conquista de la misma, sino en castigar a aquellos que habían llevado la guerra contra otras ciudades griegas en el Asia Menor.
El hecho histórico a resaltar, por tanto, es que Jerjes no combatió contra todos los griegos, ni contra Grecia entendida como país (ya que el país de Grecia era inexistente; solo estaban las poleis), sino contra una alianza de ciudades griegas, contra la cual consiguió la ayuda de otras ciudades griegas de la propia Hélade, aliadas con el imperio persa, o de aquellas ciudades griegas de Asia Menor que sufrieron el ataque de los atenienses en la revuelta jonia, y que ayudaron a Jerjes de buen grado.
Últimos años [editar]
De los últimos años del reinado de Jerjes poco se sabe. Se conoce que envió a sátrapas a intentar la circunnavegación de África, pero la victoria de los griegos en la Segunda Guerra Médica supuso la paulatina inmersión del Imperio persa en un estado de apatía, de la cual no volvería a despertar. El mismo rey se vio involucrado en varias intrigas palaciegas, dependiendo en exceso de sus cortesanos y eunucos.
Dejó varias inscripciones: en Van (Armenia), en el Monte Elvend (cerca de Ecbatana), y en Persépolis, donde mandó añadir un nuevo y suntuoso palacio a aquél que dejara su padre Darío. En todos esos textos simplemente recogió las palabras de su padre. En el 4 de agosto de 465 a. C.[1] fue asesinado por su visir Artábano, quien promovió el ascenso de Artajerjes I al trono del imperio.
Jerjes en la Biblia [editar]
En el Libro de Esdras de la Biblia, Jerjes es mencionado con el nombre Asuero -Aḥashverosh (Ahasuerus en griego, אחשורש en hebreo)-. Durante su reinado, el de su antecesor (Darío I) y el de su sucesor (Artajerjes I), muchos samaritanos pidieron ayuda al rey de Persia con acusaciones contra los judíos.
A Jerjes también se le identifica como el rey Asuero en el Libro de Ester. En este libro, Asuero repudió a su reina consorte Vasti, debido a que ella rechazó obedecer su orden de aparecer como reina del imperio en una fiesta que el rey había organizado para mostrar las riquezas y poderío de su reino. Según las usanzas persas, tal comportamiento por parte de la reina debía ser castigado con su inmediata destitución. Una vez hecho esto, el rey debía elegir para si una reina, por lo que después de reunir a un considerable número de jóvenes vírgenes de todo el imperio, Asuero escogió finalmente a Ester, cuyo origen judío ella había ocultado hasta al mismo rey. Amán el Agagueo, ministro del rey y proveniente de un pueblo que había sido destruido por Israel por mandato divino, aprovechó un disgusto personal con un judío de nombre Mardoqueo (tío y tutor de Ester), ya que este rehusaba inclinarse ante él, para convencer al rey Asuero de ordenar por decreto la destrucción del pueblo judío por no seguir sus mandatos. Tal decreto fue publicado, sin embargo, la reina Ester, aconsejada por su tío Mardoqueo, halló gracia ante su esposo el rey Asuero y logró intervenir en favor de su pueblo al revelarle a él su indentidad judía y dejar al descubierto la trama de Amán. Como los decretos del rey eran irrevocables, un nuevo decreto hubo de ser publicado, dando al pueblo judío el derecho a defenderse de sus atacantes.
En su obra, Flavio Josefo sugiere que esta historia es real, y que tanto Ester como Vasti fueron personajes que existieron en verdad. Sin embargo, Heródoto desmiente esta historia, señalando que Jerjes tuvo una reina consorte llamada Amestris, hija de Ótanes.
Los hijos de Jerjes [editar]
- Amitis, esposa de Megabizo.
- El futuro rey Artajerjes I (465/464 - 424 a. C.).
- Darío, el primogénito, asesinado por su hermano Artajerjes a instigación de Artabano (c. 465 a. C.).
- Histaspes, tal vez sátrapa de Bactriana, asesinado por Artajerjes (c. 465 a. C.).
- Rodoguna
De madres desconocidas
- Aquemenes (según Ctesias, no obstante Heródoto lo hace hijo de Darío y hermano de Jerjes).
- Artario, futuro sátrapa de Babilonia, padre de Menostanes.
- Titraustes
- Ratahshah
Titulatura [editar]
| Titulatura | Jeroglífico | Transliteración (transcripción) - traducción - (procedencia) |
| Nombre de Sa-Ra: |
| ḫšyrš (Jeshyresh) Jerjes |
Filmografía [editar]
- David Farrar interpreta a Jerjes en la película Los trescientos espartanos (The 300 spartans, 1962), también traducida como El león de Esparta, y dirigida por Rudolph Maté.
- Rodrigo Santoro interpreta al rey persa en la película 300 (2007) dirigida por Zack Snyder.
- Luke Goss interpreta a Jerjes I en la película One night with the king (2006), basada en el libro homónimo de Tommy Tenney.
Notas [editar]
- ↑ M. W. Stolper, "Late Achaemenid Chronology", en NABU 1999-6 (Achemenet.com > Resources > Publications en ligne > NABU).
- ↑ Para esta sección, véase M. Brosius, Woman in Ancient Persia, Clarendon Press, 1998.
Véase también [editar]
Enlaces externos [editar]
Wikimedia Commons alberga contenido multimedia sobre Jerjes I. Commons- Inscripciones de Jerjes: del harén y Daiva - traducción castellana
- Inscripciones reeales Aqueménidas - traducción inglesa
| Predecesor: Darío I el Grande | Rey de Persia 486–465 a. C. | Sucesor: Artajerjes I |
| Faraón de Egipto 486–465 a. C. |
Xerxes I of Persia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| Xerxes the Great (Pronunciation : Zerk-sees) | |
|---|---|
| Khshayathiya Khshayathiyanam , King of Kings | |
 | |
| Artistic depiction of Xerxes | |
| Reign | 485 to 465 BC |
| Coronation | October 485 BC |
| Born | 519 BC |
| Birthplace | Persia |
| Died | 465 BC (aged 54) |
| Place of death | Persia |
| Buried | Persia |
| Predecessor | Darius I |
| Successor | Artaxerxes I |
| Consort | Amestris |
| Royal House | Achaemenid |
| Father | Darius I of Persia (the Great) |
| Mother | Atossa |
| Religious beliefs | Zoroastrianism |
Xerxes I of Persia, also known as Xerxes the Great, was the fourth Zoroastrian king of kings of the Achamenid Empire.
Contents[hide] |
[edit] Life
[edit] Youth and rise to power
Immediately after seizing the kingship, Darius I of Persia (son of Hystaspes) married Atossa (daughter of Cyrus the Great). They were both descendants of Achaemenes from different Achaemenid lines. Marrying a daughter of Cyrus strengthened Darius' position as king.[1] Darius was an active emperor, busy with building programs in Persepolis, Susa, Egypt, and elsewhere. Toward the end of his reign he moved to punish Athens, but a new revolt in Egypt (probably led by the Persian satrap) had to be suppressed. Under Persian law, the Achaemenian kings were required to choose a successor before setting out on such serious expeditions. Upon his great decision to leave (487-486 BC)[2], Darius prepared his tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam and appointed Xerxes, his eldest son by Atossa, as his successor. Darius' failing health then prevented him from leading the campaigns,[3] and he died in October 486 BC.[3]
Xerxes was not the oldest son of Darius and according to old Iranian traditions should not have succeeded the King. Xerxes was however the oldest son of Darius and Atossa hence descendent of Cyrus. This made Xerxes the chosen King of Persia.[4] Some modern scholars also view the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne to Xerxes to be a result of his consideration of the unique positions that Cyrus the Great and his daughter Atossa have had.[5] Artobazan was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son born in the purple after Darius' rise to the throne, and Artobazan's mother was a commoner while Xerxes' mother was the daughter of the founder of the empire.[6]
Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October-December 486 BC[7] when he was about 36 years old.[2] The transition of power to Xerxes was smooth due again in part to great authority of Atossa[1] and his accession of royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.[8]
Almost immediately, he suppressed the revolts in Egypt and Babylon that had broken out the year before, and appointed his brother Achaemenes as governor or satrap (Old Persian: khshathrapavan) over Egypt. In 484 BC, he outraged the Babylonians by violently confiscating and melting down[9] the golden statue of Bel (Marduk, Merodach), the hands of which the rightful king of Babylon had to clasp each New Year's Day. This sacrilege led the Babylonians to rebel in 484 BC and 482 BC, so that in contemporary Babylonian documents, Xerxes is refused his father's title of King of Babylon, being named rather as King of Persia and Media, Great King, King of Kings (Shahanshah) and King of Nations (i.e. of the world).
Although Herodotus' report in the Histories has created certain problems concerning Xerxes' religious beliefs, modern scholars consider him as a Zoroastrian.[10]
[edit] Death
In the year 465 Xerxes was murdered by Artabanus the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in Persian court (Hazarapat/commander of thousand). He was promoted to this most prestigious of positions in Achamenid court after his refusal to help Mardonius in Plataea and instead withdrawing the second Persian army successfully out of Greece. Although he bore the same name as famed uncle of Xerxes, a Hyrcanian, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity in religious quarters of the court and harem intrigues. He put his seven sons in key positions and had an effective master plan to dethrone Achamenids.[11] In August, 465 B.C he assassinated Xerxes with the help of a eunuch Aspamitres. Greek historians give contradicting accounts on the full story. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), he then accused the crown prince Darius (Xerxes' eldest son) of the murder; he instigated Artaxerxes (another Xerxes' son), to avenge the patricide. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and then the king himself. Later on after discovering what he had done and planned for the royal power, Artabanus together with his sons were killed by Artaxerxes I.[12] Participating in the scuffles was also general Megabyzus (baghabukhsha) whose side switching probably saved the day for Achamenids.[13]
[edit] Campaigns
[edit] Invasion of the Greek mainland
Darius left to his son the task of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Ethiopians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. From 483 BC Xerxes prepared his expedition: A channel was dug through the isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road through Thrace, two bridges were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies of Xerxes, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Egyptians, Jews and Arabs.[14]
According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes' first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus bridge; Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three hundred times and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes' second attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.[15] Xerxes concluded an alliance with Carthage, and thus deprived Greece of the support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum. Many smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which Herodotus claimed was more than two million strong with at least 10,000 elite warriors named Persian Immortals. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles.
[edit] Thermopylae and Athens
At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the mountains. After Thermopylae, Athens was captured and the Athenians and Spartans were driven back to their last line of defense at the Isthmus of Corinth and in the Saronic Gulf. The delay caused by the Spartans allowed Athens to be evacuated.
What happened next is a matter of some controversy[citation needed]. According to Herodotus, upon encountering the deserted city, in an uncharacteristic fit of rage particularly for Persian kings, Xerxes had Athens burned. He almost immediately regretted this action and ordered it rebuilt the very next day[citation needed]. However, Persian scholars dispute this view as pan-Hellenic propaganda[citation needed], arguing that Sparta, not Athens, was Xerxes' main foe in his Greek campaigns, and that Xerxes would have had nothing to gain by destroying a major center of trade and commerce like Athens once he had already captured it.
At that time, anti-Persian sentiment was high among many mainland Greeks, and the rumor that Xerxes had destroyed the city was a popular one, though it is equally likely the fire was started by accident as the Athenians were frantically fleeing the scene in pandemonium[citation needed], or that it was an act of "scorched earth" warfare to deprive Xerxes' army of the spoils of the city. Unfortunately, regardless of the circumstances the damage was done and Xerxes considered the capture of Athens as the only major mistake in his military career.[citation needed]
At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. Xerxes was induced by the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus) to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies. The Battle of Salamis (September 29, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet. Although the loss was a setback, it was not a disaster as some Greek historians have claimed, and Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly.
Due to unrest in Babylon, Xerxes was forced to send his army home to prevent a revolt, leaving behind an army in Greece under Mardonius, who was defeated the following year at Plataea.[17] The Greeks also attacked and burned the remaining Persian fleet anchored at Mycale. This cut off the Persians from the supplies they needed to sustain their massive army, and they had no choice but to retreat. Their withdrawal roused the Greek city-states of Asia.
[edit] Construction projects
After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and completed the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and Persepolis. He built the Gate of all Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the palace. He completed the Apadana, the Palace of Darius and the Treasury all started by Darius as well as building his own palace which was twice the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even more gigantic scale[18]. He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and completed the Susa Gate and built a palace at Susa.[19]
[edit] In the Bible
The name Xerxes has not traditionally appeared in English bibles,[20] but has rather appeared as 'Ahasuerus'. While in many other more modern translations and paraphrases[21] they have directly listed Xerxes. Xerxes appears three times in the Bible: firstly as Esther's husband,[22] followed by a perfect example in the Book of Ezra[23], listing him as king of Persia in proper order after Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great (skipping Cambyses and the short rule of the Magi as being unrelated to the events of the book); the third reference comes from the prophecy of Daniel 11:2[24], foretelling his invasion of Greece. The reference to "Darius the son of Ahasuerus" in Daniel 9:1is unrelated.[25]
[edit] In the Book of Esther
For these same reasons and due to the historical context of the text, it is also commonly understood and translated that Esther's husband Ahasuerus is Xerxes the Great.[26] But the Greek Septuagint version of the Hebrew Bible identifies Esther's husband as Artaxerxes I (Longimanus), rather than Xerxes himself,[27] as does the Judeo-Roman historian Josephus.[28] Yet it is now thought that the translators of this portion of the Septuagint simply mistook Xerxes the Great for Artaxerxes I (Longimanus).[29][30]
[edit] In Classical Music
Xerxes is the protagonist of the opera "Serse" by the German-English Baroque composer George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in King's Theatre in London on 15 April 1738.
[edit] Children
By queen Amestris
- Amytis, wife of Megabyzus
- Artaxerxes I
- Darius, the first born, murdered by Artaxerxes I and Artabanus.
- Hystaspes, murdered by Artaxerxes I.
- Achaemenes, murdered by Egyptians.
- Rhodogune
By unknown wives
- Artarius, satrap of Babylon.
- Tithraustes
- Arsames or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas satrap of Egypt.
- Parysatis[31]
- Ratashah[32]
[edit] Depictions in popular culture
Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, and particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal in a number of works of popular culture. For instance, he was played by David Farrar in the 1962 film The 300 Spartans, where he is portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commander. He also features prominently in the graphic novel 300 by Frank Miller, as well as the movie adaptation (portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro) and the parody film Meet the Spartans (portrayed by American actor Ken Davitian).
Other works dealing with the Persian Empire or the Biblical story of Esther have also referenced Xerxes, such as the video game Assassin's Creed II and the film One Night with the King, in which Ahasueras (Xerxes) was portrayed by British actor Luke Goss. He is the leader of the Persian Empire in the video game Civilization II (along with Scheherazade) and III, although Civilization IV replaces him with Cyrus the Great.
| Xerxes I of Persia Born: 519 BC Died: 465 BC | ||
| Preceded by Darius I the Great | Great King (Shah) of Persia 485 BC–465 BC | Succeeded by Artaxerxes I |
| Pharaoh of Egypt 485 BC–465 BC | ||
[edit] Notes
- ^ a b Schmitt, R., Atossa in Encyclopaedia Iranica.
- ^ a b Dandamaev, M. A., A political history of the Achaemenid empire, p. 180.
- ^ a b A. Sh. Shahbazi, Darius I the Great, in Encyclopaedia Iranica.
- ^ Herodotus Book 7, Chap. 2. Excerpt: Artabazanes claimed the crown as the eldest of all the children, because it was an established custom all over the world for the eldest to have the pre-eminence; while Xerxes, on the other hand, urged that he was sprung from Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had won the Persians their freedom.
- ^ R. Shabani Chapter I, p. 15
- ^ Olmstead: the history of Persian empire
- ^ The cambridge history of Iran vol. 2. p. 509.
- ^ The Cambridge ancient history vol. V p. 72.
- ^ R. Ghirshman, Iran, p.191
- ^ M. Boyce, Achaemenid Religion in Encyclopædia Iranica. See also Boardman, J.; et al. (1988). The Cambridge Ancient History Vol. IV (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521228042. p. 101.
- ^ Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia book 1 p 873
- ^ Dandamayev
- ^ History of Persian Empire-Olmstead p 289/90
- ^ Farrokh 2007: 77
- ^ Bailkey, Nels, ed. Readings in Ancient History, p. 175. D.C. Heath and Co., USA, 1992.
- ^ Livius Picture Archive: Persepolis - Apadana Audience Relief
- ^ Battle of Salamis and aftermath
- ^ Ghirshman, Iran, p.172
- ^ Herodotus VII.11
- ^ King James Version, New American Standard Bible, The Amplified Bible, English Standard Version, 21st Century King James Version, American Standard Version, Young's Literal Translation, Darby Translation, Holman Christian Standard Bible, etc.
- ^ New International Version, The Message, New Living Translation, Contemporary Version, New Century Version, New International Revised Version, Today's New Interational Version, etc.
- ^ Esther 1:1
- ^ Ezra 4:5
- ^ Daniel 11:2
- ^ for more information on this matter see the artilce Darius the Mede, Identity of "Darius the Mede".
- ^ New International Version, The Message, Amplified Bible, New Living Translation, Contemporary English Version, New King James Version, New Century Version, New International Reader's Version, Today's New International Version, etc.
- ^ Septuagint; Esther 1:1,2,9...etc.; 2003 Hendrickson Publishers, ed. by Sir Lancelot C.L. Brenton; ISBN 0-913573-44-2
- ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews Book 11, Chap. 6, sec. 2; Whiston, William; The Complete Works of Josephus; Hendrickson Publishers, 1987; ISBN 0-913573-86-8.
- ^ Sir Godfrey Driver, Introduction to the Old Testament of the New English Bible (1970)
- ^ Wikipedia, Septuagint, Creation of the Septuagint, 5 October 2008
- ^ Ctesias
- ^ M. Brosius, Women in ancient Persia.
[edit] References
[edit] Ancient sources
The Sixth Book, Entitled Erato in History of Herodotus.- The Seventh Book, Entitled Polymnia in History of Herodotus.
[edit] Modern sources
- Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A political history of the Achaemenid empire. BRILL. pp. 373. ISBN 9004091726.
- The Histories. Spark Educational Publishing. 2004. ISBN 1593081022.
- Shabani, Reza (1386 AP) (in Persian). Khshayarsha (Xerxes). What do I know about Iran? No. 75. Cultural Research Burreau. pp. 120. ISBN 9643791092.
- Shahbazi, A. Sh.. "Darius I the Great". Encycloaedia Iranica. vol. 7. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v7f1/v7f136a.html#iii.
- Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Achaemenid dynasty". Encycloaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v1f4/v1f4a109.html.
- Schmitt, Rüdiger. "Atossa". Encycloaedia Iranica. vol. 3. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v3f1/v3f1a014.html.
- McCullough, W.S.. "Ahasuerus". Encycloaedia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v1f6/v1f6a062.html.
- Boyce, Mary. "Achaemenid Religion". Encycloaedia Iranica. vol. 1. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v1f4/v1f4a110.html.
- Dandamayev, M. A (1999). "Artabanus". Encyclopœdia Iranica. Routledge & Kegan Paul. http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v2f6/v2f6a002.html. Retrieved 2009-02-25.
- Frye, Richard N. (1963). The Heritage of Persia. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. pp. 301. ISBN 0297167278.
- Schmeja, H. (1975). "Dareios, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. Drei persische Königsnamen in griechischer Deutung (Zu Herodot 6,98,3)". Die Sprache 21: pp. 184–88.
- Gershevitch, Ilya; Bayne Fisher, William; A. Boyle, J. (1985). The Cambridge history of Iran. 2. The Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521200911.
- Boardman, John; al., et (1988). The Cambridge ancient history. V. The Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521228042.
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